Name: Metoda ilościowego określania przetwarzania informacji wzrokowych u dzieci za pomocą śledzenia ruchu gałek ocznych (Wideo) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2016-07-09T14:00:00.000+00:00
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Description: Poznaj metodę ilościowej oceny przetwarzania informacji wzrokowych u dzieci za pomocą śledzenia ruchu gałek ocznych. Technika ta umożliwia obiektywne pomiary bez komunikacji werbalnej od szóstego miesiąca życia.

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The authors thank daycare centers (Wasko, Alblasserwaard) for their support in recruiting the control group, and Mark Vonk for his help in data collection in the control group. The authors also thank the children from the control group and the children who are clients from Royal Dutch Visio for participation in the study. The authors are grateful to the children and their parents for participation in the video.
The development of the method was supported by a grant from the Novum Foundation: a non-profit organization providing financial support to (research) projects that improve the quality of life of individuals with a visual impairment (www.stichtingnovum.org). Financial support for the current study was provided by 'ZonMw Inzicht' (Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development-Insight Society), grant number: 60-00635-98-10.

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interest.

The presented measurement set-up combined with quantitative eye movement analysis provides a distinct characterization of visual processing functions in various groups of children with oculomotor and visual impairments. The key feature of this paradigm is that performance is based on eye movement responses to visual stimuli that are triggered in a reflexive manner. No specific verbal instructions are given and there is no need for children to verbally respond. The parameters RTF, GFA and FD show significant differences between groups of typically developing- and visually impaired children, despite the limited spread of parameter values that exists in each group (Figures 4-6). Thus, depending on the evaluated parameter, some typically developing children can show deviant performance, while some children with visual impairments show &#39;normal&#39; performance. Ultimately, multiple outcome measures in response to multiple visual modalities should be considered on an individual level. A summary of all outcome measures provides a unique characterization of visual information processing capacities, which may be converted in a visual profile in children from 6 months of age.
Several studies have shown the value of remote eye tracking in vulnerable populations of children, to infer attentional or psychological capacities9,12,18. Whereas most studies rely on behavioral observations and the use of instructions, a distinct feature of the current paradigm is the nonverbal, quantitative approach. Critical steps within the protocol therefore include the stimuli that are based on preferential looking, the mobile measurement set-up, and the custom calibration and analysis software. The presented extension of observation-based results with elaborate analysis methods provides standardized and detailed results on visual processing functions. This is in line with work on the assessment of infant visual acuity with an eye tracker14, and work on gaze control in various disorders7. The method is flexible and enables mobile assessment which is indispensable when performing clinical assessments in young children or children with multiple disabilities. Therefore, it is suited to measure oculomotor and visual processing capacities in virtually all children that are capable of watching a monitor.
The significance of this method with respect to existing visual diagnostic methods (i.e., validity) has been studied as a first step toward clinical implementation. The present paradigm was combined with currently used visual function assessment (VFA) in children. Observations of oculomotor and visual functions that are based on eye movement recordings were comparable with standard behavioral observations of these functions. Moreover, eye tracking parameters, e.g., fixation duration and saccadic direction, provided additional value in characterizing oculomotor and visual performance in children during VFA (Kooiker MJG et. al., 2015, submitted). The major gain of the presented method lies in the possibility to assess more visual functions than is currently done in visual function assessments at a young age, and to assess them in a quantitative manner26. A limitation with respect to existing methods is that, without adaptations, it is not yet possible to thoroughly assess visual acuity or visual field with the present test battery14.
Although we limited ourselves to the presentation of results from cartoon stimuli, in future applications different visual modalities can be tested using other stimuli (e.g., distinct forms, motion, color and contrast information)22,20,25. That way, specific visual processing areas beyond the primary visual pathways are targeted, such as visual association areas in temporal or parietal cortex. A limitation of the method is that the present visual stimuli merely trigger the detection of visual input, and invoke the initial stage of visual processing. These stimuli do not target higher-order functions that become relevant after stimulus detection and that are normally measured with visual perception tests. Although their execution without the use of communication is challenging, an eye tracking-based paradigm is a promising future format for the detection of perception-related information, e.g. visual search, -memory or -selective attention.
In sum, detailed eye movement responses to various types of visual stimulation provide a comprehensive characterization of visual information processing functions, early in development. Consequently, for each child an individual visual profile in terms of intact and impaired functions can be created. Such a profile may provide detailed information about strengths and weaknesses in oculomotor and visual function. It may be used as a starting point for support in daily life, and for teacher and caregiver education. The quantitative information that has become available with this method can be advantageous for following visual development over time, and for monitoring visual interventions and rehabilitation programs.

The prevalence of brain damage-related visual problems in children has increased. Because visual problems can have great impact on a child&#39;s development, early detection in young infants and children at risk is highly important. At present, visual function tests to assess visual sensory functions such as visual acuity and contrast sensitivity (e.g., optotype tests) are applicable in children from 1-2 years of age1. In younger children these tests are based on structured observations of a child&#39;s viewing behavior to visual information. The interpretation of such behavior, i.e., by looking at a child&#39;s eye movements, can be hampered by oculomotor or attentional dysfunctions of the child, or even by viewing behavior of the observer. Cerebrally mediated visual functions such as visuospatial memory and object recognition are assessed with visual perception tests (e.g., DTVP2). These tests require verbal instructions and communication and can be used from 4-5 years of age. In view of the postnatal development of the visual system and to take advantage of the high level of plasticity early in life, it is desirable to establish the presence and extent of impairments in visual information processing as early as possible. That way, children with (cerebral) visual impairments may maximally benefit from early intervention, visual stimulation, or supportive strategies. Consequently, there is a need for an assessment method of visual information processing that can be used without verbal communication in children and that is based on quantitative results.
Eye movements are a good model to study visually guided orienting behavior to stimuli3,4, and related perceptual and cognitive functions5. Eye movements indicate the focus of visual attention in scenes, and are known to result either from bottom-up (reflexive, salience-driven) or from top-down (intentional, cognitive) processes6. Eye movements are used to direct the fovea, i.e., sharpness of vision, to new objects. The visual content of an object of interest is processed via pathways that run from the retina via the lateral geniculate nucleus to primary visual cortex (V1), and that distribute themselves over cerebral processing areas (e.g., involved in attention, spatial orientation, recognition, memory, and emotions). Eye movements are both a prerequisite for, and a sequel to visual information processing.
Developments in the measurement of eye movements with infrared eye trackers give the possibility to obtain quantitative parameters of oculomotor and visual function. Automated eye trackers are nowadays omnipresent in medical and psychological research involving healthy and clinical populations. Their purpose is not only to study oculomotor function and attention allocation7, but also to answer questions about behavioral and psychological mechanisms8,9. With the rise of accessible and commercial eye tracking systems, they are increasingly used to test vulnerable populations of infants and children10-12, without constraining conditions, complex instructions, or active cooperation12,13. Due to the close coupling of the oculomotor and visual system on an ocular and cerebral level, eye tracking-based methods are pre-eminently suited to assess visual capacities. So far, besides the measurement of visual acuity14, the use of the technique in assessing visual function in children has received relatively little attention.
Our group has combined eye movement measurements with a preferential looking paradigm13. Preferential looking is the preference to fixate patterned surfaces over homogeneous ones15. This principle is applied by using visual stimuli with a target area in one of four quadrants, which differ from the background in terms of one specific visual feature, e.g. coherent form, coherent motion, contrast and color. These visual features are known to be processed by separate peripheral and central visual pathways. For example, information about form is processed by ventral pathways, from V1 to the temporal cortex. Information about motion is processed by dorsal pathways, from V1 to posterior parietal cortex16. Hence, specific stimuli are used to trigger visual information processing in distinct areas of the visual system. If a child is able to see the specific visual information that is presented, that information will attract visual attention in the form of eye movements. These reflexive eye movement responses to the visual stimuli are recorded with a remote infrared eye tracker. That way, eye movement measures provide a communication-free assessment of the quality of various aspects of visual information processing13.
Eye movements provide not only observational data of a child&#39;s viewing behavior11, but can also be used for more objective outcome measures. In combination with a carefully designed test paradigm, eye movements can give precise and objective information on visual information processing. This information is obtained by calculating quantitative parameters based on temporal and spatial properties of eye movement responses. Examples of such parameters are reaction time13, fixation time17, saccade metrics7 or cumulative attention allocation18. The availability of these parameters is new to the field of visual assessment in children at a young developmental stage.
The goal of this paper is to present an eye tracking-based method to measure visual information processing in children from the age of 6 months. The measurement set-up and procedure (i.e. nonverbal paradigm, post-calibration, and mobility) specifically apply to using this method in children at risk. A crucial aspect is the analysis of quantitative visual response parameters, i.e. reaction time, fixation duration, and fixation accuracy. These parameters are used to provide reference areas of visually guided responses in typically developing children, to characterize visual information processing in risk groups of children with visual impairments.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Tobii T60 XL</td><td>Tobii Technology: http://www.tobii.com&amp;nbsp;</td><td>http://www.tobii.com/en/eye-tracking-research/global/products/hardware/tobii-t60xl-eye-tracker/</td><td>remote infrared eye tracker&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Tobii Studio</td><td>Tobii Technology: http://www.tobii.com&amp;nbsp;</td><td>http://www.tobii.com/en/eye-tracking-research/global/products/software/tobii-studio-analysis-software/</td><td>eye tracker software</td></tr><tr><td>MATLAB</td><td>MathWorks Inc</td><td>http://nl.mathworks.com/products/matlab/</td><td>data analysis software</td></tr></tbody></table>

a method to quantify visual information processing in children using eye tracking

A Method to Quantify Visual Information Processing in Children Using Eye Tracking

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational methods, it is difficult to make a quantitative assessment of a child's visual problems. This limits accurate diagnostics in children under the age of 4 years and in children with intellectual disabilities. Here we describe a quantitative method that overcomes these problems. The method uses a remote eye tracker and a four choice preferential looking paradigm to measure eye movement responses to different visual stimuli. The child sits without head support in front of a monitor with integrated infrared cameras. In one of four monitor quadrants a visual stimulus is presented. Each stimulus has a specific visual modality with respect to the background, e.g., form, motion, contrast or color. From the reflexive eye movement responses to these specific visual modalities, output parameters such as reaction times, fixation accuracy and fixation duration are calculated to quantify a child's viewing behavior. With this approach, the quality of visual information processing can be assessed without the use of communication. By comparing results with reference values obtained in typically developing children from 0-12 years, the method provides a characterization of visual information processing in visually impaired children. The quantitative information provided by this method can be advantageous for the field of clinical visual assessment and rehabilitation in multiple ways. The parameter values provide a good basis to: (i) characterize early visual capacities and consequently to enable early interventions; (ii) compare risk groups and follow visual development over time; and (iii), construct an individual visual profile for each child.

The presented method has been applied in two populations of children: a control group of 337 children without visual impairments (mean age (SD) = 4.8 (3.3) years), and a group of 119 children with visual impairments (mean age (SD) = 8.10 (2.96) years) who were recruited at a visual rehabilitation center (Royal Dutch Visio, the Netherlands). Of these children, 74 had ocular visual impairment and 45 had cerebral visual impairments. The results of all control children are visualized in Figures 4-6, separately for reaction time, fixation duration, and gaze fixation area. Reference limits (indicated by black lines) were constructed by fitting a logarithmic function to the control data based on age. These figures serve as a basis for characterizing visual processing functions in children with visual impairments, in terms of impaired or intact function.
The parameter reaction time to fixation (RTF) differentiates between children with- and without visual impairments, and between distinct types of visual impairments. RTF is a measure for the time that is needed to process visual information and execute an eye movement (for calculations refer to a previous study13). The lower the RTF value, the faster the eye movement response. Good repeatability of RTF has been shown in a group of typically developing children from 0-12 years13,21,22, and in children with various types of visual impairments21. Figure 4 shows average RTF to the dynamic Cartoon stimulus over age, for control children, children with cerebral visual impairment (CVI) and children with ocular visual impairment (OVI). RTF values are significantly higher in children with- compared to children without visual impairments (mean difference = 85 msec; t = -13.91, p &lt;0.001, Cohen's d = 1.32) and in children with CVI compared to OVI (mean difference = 99 msec; t = -6.90, p &lt;0.001, Cohen's d = 1.25). These results confirm previously published findings on RTF in subgroups of the present dataset20,24,25.
<img alt="Average reaction time vs. age graph; control, OVI, CVI groups; data analysis; physiological study." src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig4.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788235205000" data-alt="Figure 4"> 
Figure 4. Average RTF in children with- and without visual impairments. Average RTF values in ms (y-axis) per child, over age (x-axis). Values are shown separately for control children (open circles), children with OVI (black circles), and children with CVI (crosses). The black line represents the upper reference limit of RTF in the control group. RTF values above this line are regarded as deviant, i.e. long reaction times. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Fixation duration is the total amount of time that gaze was fixated within the target area. FD is a measure for sustained visual attention, and is dependent on stimulus presentation time, which is 4 sec in the present example. The parameter fixation duration (FD) also differentiates between children with and without different types of visual impairments. Figure 5 shows mean FD over age, separately for control children, children with CVI, and children with OVI. FD is significantly shorter in children with- than in children without visual impairments (mean difference = 850 msec; t = 11.72, p &lt;0.001, Cohen's d = -1.12), and significantly shorter in children with CVI than in children with OVI (mean difference = 325 msec; t = 2.44, p &lt;0.05, Cohen's d = -0.50). This confirms previous results in children with-, compared to children without visual impairments (Kooiker MJG et al., submitted).
<img alt="Age vs. fixation duration scatter plot; developmental visual analysis in control, OVI, CVI groups." src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig5.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788235205000" data-alt="Figure 5"> 
Figure 5. Average FD in children with- and without visual impairments. Average FD values in ms (y-axis) per child, over age (x-axis). Values are shown separately for control children (open circles), children with OVI (black circles), and children with CVI (crosses). The black line represents the lower reference limit of FD in the control group. FD values below this line are regarded as deviant, i.e. short fixation duration. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The parameter gaze fixation area (GFA) is sensitive to detect disturbances in oculomotor control, in particular nystagmus. GFA represents the size of the area of fixation in degrees, and is a measure for fixation accuracy (for calculations see previous studies13,23). A small area of fixation indicates high fixation accuracy. GFA depends on the size of the stimulus and the corresponding target area (i.e., a 6º radius in the present example). Good repeatability of GFA has been shown in a group of typically developing children from 0-12 years13, 21, and in children with various types of visual impairments21. Figure 6 shows mean GFA in response to the cartoon stimulus over age, separately for control children, children with the oculomotor impairment nystagmus, and children with visual impairments but without nystagmus. GFA values are significantly larger, i.e. lower fixation accuracy, in children with- compared to children without visual impairments (mean difference = 1.34º; t = -25.09, p &lt;0.001, Cohen's d = 2.37). In addition, children with nystagmus have lower fixation accuracy than children without nystagmus but with other types of visual impairment (mean difference = 0.71º; t = 5.03, p &lt;0.001; Cohen's d = 1.04). This is consistent with previously published findings on GFA in subgroups of the present dataset20,24,25.
<img alt="Gaze fixation area vs. age scatter plot; control and visual impairment with/without nystagmus groups." src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig6.jpg" data-altupdatedat="1788235205000" data-alt="Figure 6"> 
Figure 6. Average GFA in children with and without visual impairments. Average GFA values in degrees (y-axis) per child, over age (x-axis). Values are shown separately for control children (open circles), children with visual impairment and nystagmus (asterisk), and children with visual impairment without nystagmus (black diamond). The black line represents the upper reference limit of GFA in the control group. GFA values above this line are regarded as deviant, i.e. low fixation accuracy. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

A method is described to quantify the quality of visual information processing based on reflexive eye movements in response to specific visual modalities. Reaction times and fixation output parameters are used to characterize visual performance in children with and without visual impairments from 6 months of age.

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational ...

The overall goal of this Eye-Tracking-Based Preferential Looking Method, is to quantify the quality of Visual Information Processing in Children, based on Reflexive Visually-guided Orienting Responses. This method's gonna have significant value in the field of Clinical Visual Assessments and Rehabilitation in Children from six months of age. Also, the methods is based on objective measurements, and analysis of eye movement responses.These responses provide quantitative information about visual performance, and can be obtained without verbal communication. The quantitative visual processing parameters, such as reaction times, and fixation quality, have additional value for characterizing visual performance, especially in young children, and children with intellectual disabilities. The implications of this matter, extend from characterizing visual processing, and ocular motor functions in healthy children, to identification of abnormal visual performance in children with visual impairments.Begin by selecting a set of visual stimuli, such as images or movies, to target the processing of basic ocular motor functions, and visual processing functions. Use visual stimuli, to evaluate basic ocular motor functions, such as Fixations and Saccades, Smooth Pursuit, and Optokinetic Nystagmus. Next, use a set of visual stimuli, that are based on a Four Alternative-forced Choice Preferential-looking Paradigm, such that four different stimulus corners, each represent an alternative choice, or a target area.Use these visual stimuli, to evaluate visual processing functions, such as simultaneous processing, form, contrast, color, or motion. Next, design a test sequence in the Eye-tracker software, by selecting the type of stimulus to be added, either an image or movie. To do this, select the desired stimulus from the folder in which it is located, and click Add.Repeat these steps until all stimuli have been added to the timeline. Finally, place the different types of visual stimuli, in random order, in the test sequence. Ensure that the position of the target area, alternates from trial to trial, in order to engage reflexive eye movements, toward the target, from the participant.Begin by choosing an eye-tracking system that is suitable for pediatric populations, for example, with remote infrared light, and attach the eye-tracker monitor with a flexible LCD arm, to a solid table. Choose an arm that can move in three dimensions. Escort the child into the testing room, and position them at about 60 centimeters from the monitor, to ensure efficient pupil-tracking of both eyes.Then, adjust the monitor position, to be perpendicular to the child's eyes. Next, confirm the quality of pupil reception, by the presence of two clearly visible white dots, that represent the child's eyes on the screen. Start the Eye-tracker Software Calibration Procedure, that presents moving dots in predefined areas of the monitor, to align the gaze positions.Check the quality of this preset calibration, to ensure recordings can be made. Next, activate a separate window called viewer, that chose the child's eye movement responses, to the test stimuli, by superimposing the gaze signal, on the video recording. Activate a web camera that is directed at the child, to observe and record the child's general behavior, during the test.Tell the child that they will be watching television. Then, execute the test, and observe the child's physical behavior, and eye movement responses. After test execution, replay the gaze recording offline, and observe the gaze responses to the presented stimuli, in order to obtain a qualitative characterization of the child's visual orienting behavior.Finally, export and store each subject's recorded, time-based data on eye movement characteristics, such as viewing distance and gaze positions, and separately the time-based list of presented visual stimuli, such as stimulus positions. Apply a post-calibration procedure after the recording is complete, to circumvent poor pre-test calibration, due to excessive head movements, lack of proper fixations, and abnormal gaze or head position. To do this, open the Analysis software, and select the stimulus to analyze the gaze data, by typing in one next to the stimulus of choice.Press Run. In the Pop-up Menu, select the option Post-calibrate the Data. Then, select Gaze Data for one subject, from the list of files and press Open.From the next Pop-up Menu, select which eyes to analyze. Either Left, Right, or Both, in order to generate a scatter plot, of all recorded gaze and target positions, over the total stimulus presentation time. Next, select Yes or No, depending on whether gaze positions, correctly overlap with the corresponding target positions.If the calibration is not correct, choose No to perform a post-calibration. Translate the center of gaze points, to the center of the monitor, by clicking once, on the Center of Gaze Points, or the Center Point located exactly in the middle of the vertical and horizontal axis. Scale the gaze positions to the corresponding target positions, by clicking the Center of Gaze Points, in each of the four target quadrants once.Check again, whether the gaze positions correctly overlap, with the corresponding target positions. If the calibration is correct, choose Yes, to Save the calibrated gaze data. Otherwise, choose No, and repeat the post-calibration procedure.Furthermore, verify that the subject has seen the stimulus presentation, by checking that the gaze data, aligns with the following criteria, as well as the visualization graph. If the stimulus can be classified as seen, click Yes in the Pop-up Menu. Otherwise, click No.Simultaneously, plot all fixation points, belonging to the presented stimulus, in the corresponding target quadrant.Visually inspect whether the fixation points, are located in the correct quadrant. Finally, after manually checking the eye movement responses, use the software to calculate three parameters. Reaction Time to Fixation, or RTF, Fixation Duration, or FD, and Gaze Fixation Area, or GFA.RTF, is a measure for the time that is needed, to process visual information, and execute an eye movement. Here, the average RTF values during the dynamic cartoon stimulus, are significantly higher, in children with visual impairments, compared to children without visual impairments. In addition, RTF values are significantly higher, in children with cerebral visual impairments, compared to children with ocular visual impairments.Fixation Duration, is the total amount of time, that gaze was fixation within the target area. FD is significantly shorter, in children with visual impairments, compared to children without visual impairments. In addition, FD is significantly shorter, in children with cerebral visual impairments, compared to children with ocular visual impairments.Furthermore, Gaze Fixation Area, is a measure for fixation accuracy, in which a small area of fixation, indicates high fixation accuracy. Here, GFA values are significantly larger, in children with visual impairments, then in children without visual impairments. In addition, GFA is significantly larger, in children with visual impairments and nystagmus, compared to children with visual impairments, but without nystagmus.After watching this video, you should have a good understanding how to use Eye-tracking-based Methods, in clinical and practice. These methods can be used to quantify, the quality of visual information processing, in children from the age of six months. Essential steps within the protocol, include the stimuli that are based on preferential looking, the ability to post-calibrate the eye-tracking data, and the availability of quantitative outcome issues.The official processing parameters obtained with these methods, can be advantageous for following visual developments over time, and for monitoring effects of Visual Intervention Programs. These methods can provide individual profiles of visual performance. Such profiles may be used for functional support in daily life, tailored to the child's needs.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Eye tracking has long been used to study gaze patterns in typically-developing individuals, but recent technological advancements have made its use with clinical populations, including autism, more feasible. While eye-tracking young children with autism can offer insight into early symptom manifestations, it involves methodological challenges. Suggestions for best practices are provided.

Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism

Young children do not passively observe the world, but rather actively explore and engage with their environment. This protocol provides guiding principles and practical recommendations for using head-mounted eye trackers to record infants' and toddlers' dynamic visual environments and visual attention in the context of natural behavior.

Gaze in Action: Head-mounted Eye Tracking of Children's Dynamic Visual Attention During Naturalistic Behavior

This is a qualitative comparative case study analysis of eye-tracking data on the first moments of social video scenes as viewed by three participants: one with autism spectrum disorder, one with comorbid attention deficit-hyperactive disorder, and one neurotypical control.

Comparing Eye-tracking Data of Children with High-functioning ASD, Comorbid ADHD, and of a Control Watching Social Videos

Eye tracking studies using a preferential looking paradigm can be used to study infants' emerging understanding of, and attention to, their external visual world.

Exploring Infant Sensitivity to Visual Language using Eye Tracking and the Preferential Looking Paradigm

In this paper, we present a novel automated method for assessing visual acuity in infants and toddlers by using an eye-tracking system.

An Automated Method for Assessing Visual Acuity in Infants and Toddlers Using an Eye-Tracking System

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.



Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

Cognitive deficits are common in about one third of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a neurological condition leading to progressive impairments in speech and movement abilities. To conduct cognitive tests in patients unable to speak or write a reliable and easy to administer eye-tracking paradigm was developed.

Eye-Tracking Control to Assess Cognitive Functions in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

The present study proposes a protocol to investigate the adaptation to left-right reversed audition achieved only by wearable devices, using neuroimaging, which can be an effective tool for uncovering the adaptability of humans to a novel environment in the auditory domain.

A Method to Study Adaptation to Left-Right Reversed Audition

The present article reviews an eye-tracking methodology for studies on language comprehension. To obtain reliable data, key steps of the protocol must be followed. Among these are the correct set-up of the eye tracker (e.g., ensuring good quality of the eye and head images) and accurate calibration.

Eye Tracking During Visually Situated Language Comprehension: Flexibility and Limitations in Uncovering Visual Context Effects

The visual world paradigm monitors participants' eye movements in the visual workspace as they are listening to or speaking a spoken language. This paradigm can be used to investigate the online processing of a wide range of psycholinguistic questions, including semantically complex statements, such as disjunctive statements.

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language

Poznaj metodę ilościowej oceny przetwarzania informacji wzrokowych u dzieci za pomocą śledzenia ruchu gałek ocznych. Technika ta umożliwia obiektywne pomiary bez komunikacji werbalnej od szóstego miesiąca życia.

A Method to Quantify Visual Information Processing in Children Using Eye Tracking

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