Name: 定位脳波を使用して、ディープ皮質の機能と下構造の調査：前帯状皮質からの教訓は、 (動画) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2015-04-15T15:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 9 min
Description: 学ぶ 定位脳波（SEEG）を用いて、前帯状皮質などの深部皮質構造からの電気生理学的信号を記録する方法です。認知課題中の局所電位活動を解析し、てんかんの病巣特定や認知神経科学研究への応用を示します。

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The authors have no acknowledgements or financial disclosures.

Ensure that each patient is reviewed for suitability for the research study, and appropriate patients must be consented for participation in the study according to local IRB procedures.
1. Patient Selection for SEEG and Research
<ol>
	<li>Patient Selection for SEEG 
	Note: Epilepsy patients must be clinically assessed by a multidisciplinary team consisting of epileptologists, neuropsychologists and neurosurgeons.
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure that the patient has medically refractory focal epilepsy, defined as failure to respond to at least 2 adequate trials of anti-epileptic medications.</li>
		<li>Ensure that non-invasive techniques have failed to localize the epileptogenic foci.</li>
		<li>Confirm with multidisciplinary team that patient is not suitable for investigation only with subdural grid electrodes.</li>
		<li>Confirm with multidisciplinary team that there is clinical suspicion of a deep seizure onset zone.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Patient selection for research task
	<ol>
		<li>Ensure that subject is between the ages of 13 and 65 years.</li>
		<li>Obtain consent or assent (together with parental consent if below the age of 18 years) from the patient.</li>
		<li>Ensure that subjects are able to attend to the task and cooperate with the testing.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation and Implantation Technique
<ol>
	<li>Perform a volumetric T2 and contrast enhanced volumetric T1 MRI preoperatively and transfer the images to the stereotactic navigation software, according to manufacturer&#8217;s protocol.
	<ol>
		<li>Plan the depth electrode targets based on the MRI and clinical suspicion of seizure foci. 
		Note: The examples provided are based on the BrainLab navigation software and are thus specific to this system. However, any stereotactic navigation software can be used to plan depth electrode trajectories and placement.</li>
		<li>Define the anatomical region of interest as the target point within the &#8220;Stereotactic Planning&#8221; function in the stereotactic navigation software.</li>
		<li>For example, use dACC as the target of interest. To define its trajectory, press &#8220;New Trajectory,&#8221; then press &#8220;target&#8221; and click on the dACC. Center the target in the middle of dACC by examining dACC in all 3 planes (axial, coronal and sagittal) and clicking on the middle of dACC in each plane.
		<ol>
			<li>Define the entry point on the scalp within the &#8220;Stereotactic Planning&#8221; function in the stereotactic navigation software.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>For example, choose a point on the scalp that appears to be the shortest path to the dACC. Press &#8220;entry&#8221; and choose the point on the scalp to make the entry point.</li>
		<li>Click and drag the &#8220;target&#8221; and &#8220;entry&#8221; points to modify the defined trajectory to avoid cortical and subcortical vascular structures as well as any potential eloquent cerebral regions.</li>
		<li>Repeat for all planned depth electrode targets (Figure 1).</li>
		<li>Admit the patient on the morning of the surgery, bring to the operating room, and induce under general anesthesia26,27.</li>
		<li>Attach a Cosman-Roberts-Wells (CRW) stereotactic headframe to the patient&#8217;s head with skull screws.</li>
		<li>Obtain a volumetric CT with the headframe in place.</li>
		<li>Load the volumetric CT and MRI images into the stereotactic navigation software via the &#8220;Load and Import&#8221; function.</li>
		<li>Click on the &#8220;Localization&#8221; function within the stereotactic navigation software.</li>
		<li>Localize the CRW headframe by clicking on all of the images defined by the stereotactic navigation software as containing the headframe and then pushing the &#8220;Assign localizer&#8221; button.</li>
		<li>Click on the &#8220;AC/PC Localization&#8221; function within the stereotactic navigation software.</li>
		<li>Identify the anterior and posterior commissures based on their anatomical location.</li>
		<li>Designate the anterior and posterior commissures via the &#8220;Set AC/PC system&#8221; function within the stereotactic navigation software.</li>
		<li>Click on the &#8220;Image Fusion&#8221; function within the stereotactic navigation software.</li>
		<li>Merge the CT images with the MRI images in the stereotactic navigation software28,29. Click on the paired volumetric CT and MRI images underneath the &#8220;Fusion&#8221; tab and then click &#8220;Auto Fusion&#8221;. 
		Note: This places the MRI within the stereotactic frame coordinates.</li>
		<li>Click on the &#8220;Stereotactic Planning&#8221; function within the stereotactic navigation software and confirm the planned trajectories from steps 2.1.2 - 2.1.6.</li>
		<li>Choose the volumetric CT as the stereotactic reference under the &#8220;Stereotactic Functions&#8221; tab.</li>
		<li>Click the &#8220;print&#8221; icon in the vertical column of icons to print the final stereotactic coordinates for each depth electrode trajectory 30,31.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Implantation technique
	<ol>
		<li>Return the patient to the operating room following the CT scan.</li>
		<li>Prepare and drape the surgical field using routine sterile methods32,33.</li>
		<li>Ensure that a fluoroscope is in the operating room and draped along with the rest of the surgical field.</li>
		<li>Using the printed stereotactic coordinates from step 2.1.20, set the coordinates for the first depth electrode on the headframe. 
		Note: The stereotactic coordinates are given in 3 planes: lateral (x), vertical (y) and anterior-posterior (z). For example, the printed coordinates for a target in the right dACC are +48.2 mm A-P, 6.6 mm Lateral and +2.2 mm Vertical. The headframe is then set to those coordinates accordingly.</li>
		<li>Extend the guideblock down to the skin and mark the location of the burr hole on the scalp with a marking pen. Fix the guideblock in place based on the stereotactic coordinates and as such, no landmarks are necessary to mark the incision.</li>
		<li>Inject 2 - 3 ml&#160;of 0.5% bupivicaine in a 1:100,000 dilution of epinephrine into the marked incision.</li>
		<li>Make a nick in the scalp with a scalpel down to the skull into the marked incision.</li>
		<li>Cauterize the dermis and deep tissue using monopolar cautery directed with a coated obturator in order to minimize any bleeding from vessels in the skin or subcutaneous tissue.</li>
		<li>Drill a burr hole using a 2.1 mm twist drill bit in the middle of the incision.</li>
		<li>Open the dura with a rigid obturator probe. Screw an anchor bolt into the skull. Place a pre-measured stylet probe through the anchor bolt to make a track for the electrode.</li>
		<li>Carefully advance the electrode to the pre-calculated depth. Tighten the anchor bolt cap down to secure the electrode.</li>
		<li>Repeat this process for all of the depth electrodes.</li>
		<li>Place the fluoroscope underneath and surrounding the patient&#8217;s head in both AP and lateral planes to obtain fluoroscopic images to ensure adequate placement trajectories of all electrodes.</li>
		<li>Connect the electrodes to the clinical EEG system to verify appropriate impedances.</li>
		<li>Wake the patient from anesthesia and transport to the recovery room, and subsequently to the EMU.</li>
		<li>In the EMU, monitor the patient via closed circuit monitoring for clinical seizures and via ECoG for electrographic evidence of seizures.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Behavioral Task and Data Acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Behavioral task
	<ol>
		<li>Open behavioral software on computer devoted solely to running the behavioral software. 
		Note: The instructions provided are based on MonkeyLogic, a MATLAB toolbox designed for the presentation and execution of temporally precise psychophysical tasks34,35 and are thus specific to that behavioral software platform. This program is run on Matlab version 2010a and requires the &#8220;Data Acquisition Toolbox.&#8221; However, any behavioral software platform capable of presenting visual stimuli and recording electrophysiological data could be used.</li>
		<li>Set the conditions file designed to run the MSIT task to include all four trial types of equal frequency. 
		Note: The MSIT task consists of presenting the subject with a cue of three numbers between 0 and 3, where two of the numbers, the &#8216;distractors&#8217;, are the same and one number, the &#8216;target&#8217;, is different.
		<ol>
			<li>Instruct the subject to identify the &#8216;target&#8217; by pressing the corresponding button on a button box. If &#8216;1&#8217; is the target, the left button is the correct choice. If &#8216;2&#8217;, the middle button, and if &#8216;3&#8217;, the right button. &#8216;0&#8217; does not correspond to a possible button (Figure 2).</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Press the &#8220;Set conditions&#8221; button and choose the desired conditions file set in the prior step. 
		Note: There are two types of cognitive interference that induce conflict during the decision making process. Flanker interference trials occur when the distractors are possible (1, 2, or 3, rather than 0) button choices (e.g., 121), while spatial interference trials occur when the target number&#8217;s spatial location differs from the response location (e.g., 200, in which the middle button is the correct response, despite the fact that the target number is in the left position). There are four trial types based on the presence or absence of these two interference types.</li>
		<li>Test the behavioral display monitor by clicking &#8220;Test&#8221; in the display box. The display monitor should show the test visual stimulus for 2 - 3 sec.</li>
		<li>Connect the subject interface device (button box) to the analog inputs on the data acquisition board on the computer devoted to recording the electrophysiological data via three standard BNC cables.</li>
		<li>Connect the button box to a power source.</li>
		<li>Connect the data acquisition board to the 512-channel neural signal processor via a ribbon cable split into 9 ribbons. 8 of the ribbons are connected to ports 0 -&#160;7 on the digital I/O portion of the data acquisition board while the 9th ribbon is connected to port 0 on the digital PFI portion of the data acquisition board. 
		Note: The ribbons send 8-bit digital markers (ports 0 - 7, digital I/O) and a strobe pulse (port 0, digital PFI), to the neural signal processor.</li>
		<li>Set the desired sampling rate in the neural signal processor software.
		<ol>
			<li>In this example, set the desired sampling rate to 50,000 samples per second, alias and down-sample online to 1,000 samples per second. Adjust the sample rate to fit the specific goals of the task. Sub-millisecond precision timing requires an extremely high sampling rate.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Connect the amplifier to the neural signal processor via fiber optic cable.</li>
		<li>Connect the neural signal processor to the data streamer and the optical PCI card in the neural data acquisition computer via fiber optic cable.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Data acquisition
	<ol>
		<li>Use the research rig for EMU electrophysiology containing a 512-channel neural signal processor for processing and filtering digitized, pre-amplified electrical signals from the depth electrodes. 
		Note: While there are 512 channels for processing, in practice, there are never more than 15 - 20 electrodes placed for clinical purposes. Therefore, we recommend recording from as many electrodes as feasible as data size and spatial resolution is never an issue.</li>
		<li>Transport the rig to the patient&#8217;s room, place the behavioral monitor in front of the patient on a portable table and connect to the behavioral control computer running the behavioral software using a standard DVI cable.</li>
		<li>Place the recording rig behind or to the side of the patient&#8217;s bed in order to remain as unobtrusive as possible.</li>
		<li>Connect the research system to the splitter box that separates the research recording from the clinical system.</li>
		<li>Control recording parameters&#160;using the neural signal processor software34,35. 
		Note: This system enables sub-millisecond control over behavioral events34,35. Synchronization between neural and behavioral data can be accomplished with either analog pulses coding for task events or digital markers. Both signals can be sent from either the digital or analog outputs on the data acquisition board to the analog or digital inputs on the neural signal processor.</li>
		<li>Hand the patient the subject interface device (button box) and give task instructions.</li>
		<li>Click &#8220;Run&#8221; to run the task.</li>
		<li>Allow the patient to complete 2 blocks of 150 trials each.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Open software package that allows for visualization of electrophysiological data. 
	Note: The instructions provided below are specific to Matlab version 2010a but any software that allows for visualization and manipulation of electrophysiological data can be used.</li>
	<li>Open .edf file containing raw electrophysiological data from the trial session.</li>
	<li>Visualize SEEG signal from the session to ensure there is no visible artifact such as epileptiform discharges or movement artifact (Figure 3A).</li>
	<li>Overlay the timing pulses from the behavioral task onto the raw LFP trace (Figure 3B) to illustrate how analog pulses can delineate trial structure.</li>
	<li>Using the timing pulses, align the SEEG trace to cue presentation for each trial (Figure 3C).</li>
	<li>Remove outliers (&#62;4 standard deviations) and artifact traces (Figure 3D).</li>
	<li>Save all aligned trials in a matrix for further analyses (20 trials shown stacked in Figure 3E).</li>
	<li>Average LFP activity across trials to reduce effect of noise, artifact, or EEG activity not related to the presented stimuli, and to increase the signal of interest (Figure 3F).</li>
	<li>Create the raw, trial-averaged spectrogram using multi-tapered spectral analysis36-38. 
	Note: Time-frequency analysis can be used in order to investigate the specific spectro-temporal dynamics across single or multiple trials. This method enables the investigation of neuronal oscillations at different frequencies over time.</li>
	<li>Pad the signal from each trial with zeroes to the next largest power of 2 to avoid edge effects.</li>
	<li>Apply a 800 ms sliding window with 5 leading tapers and a time-bandwidth product of 9 every 10 ms through the duration of the signal to create the spectrogram (Figure 4A).</li>
	<li>Multiply the log of the spectrogram by 10 and normalize to display higher frequency information. 
	Note: Spectrograms can be normalized by a theoretical frequency distribution (i.e., each frequency value raised to the negative 2nd power)(Figure 4B), the mean spectrum of some baseline activity (Figure 4C), or by dividing by the mean and subtracting the standard deviation of the values in each frequency band (Figure 4D). This procedure allows for the examination of specific frequency bands in both raw and normalized forms over time for changes specific to the task. For example, high gamma band activation (70 - 150 Hz), which is shown in Figure 3E, is thought to reflect local excitatory activity of the local neuronal population surrounding the electrode39,40.</li>
</ol>

The authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.

In this paper SEEG was used to investigate the activity of local neuronal populations within the dACC during a decision-making task in humans. Previous work has investigated the activity of individual neurons in the dACC using intraoperative microelectode recordings 14 and demonstrated that dACC activity is modulated by previous activity. Microelectrode studies enable the investigation of the spiking activity of individual neurons. SEEG measures LFPs, which are related to the summated synaptic potentials acros...

Epilepsy, a common neurological disorder characterized by multiple recurrent seizures over time, accounts for 1% of the worldwide burden of diseases 1. Anti-epileptic medications fail to control seizures in 20 - 30% of patients 2,3. In these medically intractable patients, epilepsy surgery is often indicated 4,5. The decision to proceed with surgery requires locating the seizure focus, a prerequisite to formulating a surgical plan. Initially, non-invasive techniques are used to lateralize and localize the seizure focus. Electroencephalography (EEG), for example, measures cortical electrical activity recorded from electrodes placed on the scalp and can often provide sufficient information about the location of the seizure focus. In addition, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can demonstrate discrete lesions, such as hippocampal sclerosis, the classic pathology seen in the most common form of medically intractable epilepsy, mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE).
Frequently, however, the noninvasive workup is unable to identify a seizure focus. In these cases, invasive electrocorticography (ECoG) with intracerebral electrodes is required to localize the focus and guide further surgical treatment 6. ECoG is a neurophysiological technique used to measure electrical activity using electrodes placed in direct contact with the brain. Grids or strips of surface (subdural) electrodes are placed over the surface of the brain, a process that requires a craniotomy (removal of a bone flap) and large opening of the dura. These surface electrodes can be placed over the putative area(s) of seizure onset. The distal ends of the electrodes are tunneled through small openings in the skin and connected to the recording equipment in the epilepsy monitoring unit (EMU). In the EMU, the patient is monitored for clinical seizure activity through continuous video and ECoG recordings. This technique is useful for collecting long-term (days to weeks) recordings of ictal and interictal electrical discharges over relatively large areas of the cortical surface. While these intracranial recordings are invaluable clinically for investigating seizure foci and propagation, they also provide us with the opportunity to investigate cognitive function and neurophysiology in humans undergoing specifically designed behavioral tasks.
ECoG using subdural grid electrodes has been used to investigate various aspects of cortical function, including sensory and language processing. As one of many examples, Bouchard et al demonstrated the temporal coordination of the oral musculature in the formation of syllables for spoken language in the ventral sensorimotor cortex, a region identified as the human speech sensorimotor cortex 7. Furthermore, ECoG with subdural grid placement has also been utilized to study the mechanisms by which humans are able to attend to a particular voice within a crowd: the so-called &#8216;cocktail party effect&#8217; 8,9. ECoG recordings demonstrated that there are two distinct neuronal bands that dynamically track speech streams, both low frequency phase and high-gamma amplitude fluctuations, and that there are distinct processing sites - one &#8216;modulation&#8217; site that tracks both speakers, and one &#8216;selection&#8217; site that tracks the attended talker 5.
Another emerging application of ECoG with subdural electrode placement is the potential for use with Brain Computer Interfaces (BCIs), which &#8220;decode&#8221; neuronal activity in order to drive an external output. This technology has the potential of allowing patients with severe brain or spinal cord injuries to communicate with the world and manipulate prostheses 10,11.
While subdural grid placement has contributed greatly to our understanding of superficial cortical areas and is useful in identifying cortical epileptogenic foci, this technique does require a craniotomy and its attendant risks, and is generally limited to studying the outer surface of the brain. Stereotactic electroencephalography (SEEG) is a technique that enables the assessment of deep epileptogenic foci12. With a long history of use in France and Italy, it is also increasingly being used in the US 13. SEEG involves the placement of multiple electrodes (typically 10 - 16) deep within the substance of the brain through small (few mm) twist drill burr holes. Advantages of SEEG over subdural grid placement include its less invasive nature, the ease of examining bilateral hemispheres when required, and the ability to generate three-dimensional maps of seizure propagation. Furthermore, these electrodes enable the identification of deep epileptogenic foci that were previously difficult to identify with surface electrodes. This procedure also provides the opportunity to investigate the neurophysiology and function of deep cortical structures, such as the limbic system, the mesoparietal cortex, the mesotemporal cortex, and the orbitofrontal cortex, all of which were previously difficult to directly investigate in humans.
This paper demonstrates how SEEG can be utilized to investigate cognitive function in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). The dACC is a widely investigated brain region, but it is also one of the most poorly understood. Considered a significant region for human cognition, it is likely that the dACC is central to the dynamic neural processing of decisions in the context of continuously changing demands imposed by the environment 14. Studies in both primates 15,16 and humans 17 suggest that the dACC integrates potential risks and rewards of a given action, especially in situations of multiple simultaneous conflicting demands18-21, and modulates these decisions in the context of previous actions and their outcomes 14,22,23.
The Multi-Source Interference Task (MSIT), a Stroop-like behavioral task, is frequently used to investigate conflict processing in the dACC. The MSIT task activates the dACC by recruiting neurons involved in multiple domains of processing regulated by the dACC 24,25. This task specifically activates the dACC by testing features of decision-making, target detection, novelty detection, error detection, response selection, and stimulus/response competition. In addition, the MSIT task introduces multiple dimensions of cognitive interference, which are utilized in this study to investigate dACC neural responses to simultaneous conflicting stimuli using SEEG.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Trigger I/O cable</td><td>Natus Medical Inc.</td><td>5029</td><td>PS2 to BNC cable</td></tr><tr><td>BNC cables for analog pulses</td><td></td><td></td><td>Can be ordered from most electronics stores.</td></tr><tr><td>Power strip with surge protection and battery backup</td><td>Tripp Lite</td><td>SMART500RT1U UPC</td><td>Power source and backup</td></tr><tr><td>National instruments multifunctional daq data acquisition box NI PCIe-6382 DAQ cards</td><td>National Instruments</td><td>PCIe-6382 w/ BNC 2090A</td><td>PCI cards for behavioral control interface</td></tr><tr><td>Custom made button box - human interface device</td><td></td><td></td><td>Any human interface device with three buttons may be used. Alternatively, 3 keyboard buttons may be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Xltek 128 channel clinical intracranial EEG monitoring system EMU128FS</td><td>Natus Medical Inc.</td><td>002047c</td><td>Clinical recording system</td></tr><tr><td>Subject monitor and associated cables for visual stimulus presentation</td><td>Dell</td><td>U2212HMc</td><td>Most Monitors are adequate here.</td></tr><tr><td>Personal comptuer running behavioral software with DAQ cards installed</td><td>Superlogics</td><td>SL-2U-PD-Q87SLQ-BA</td><td>Computer for recording neural data</td></tr><tr><td>Mains cable for monitor</td><td></td><td></td><td>Usually comes with the monitor, can be purchased at any electronics store.</td></tr><tr><td>Monkey Logic software which runs on Matlab 2010A</td><td></td><td></td><td>Free from MonkeyLogic website</td></tr><tr><td>MATLAB 2010a software with data acquisition toolbox</td><td>Mathworks</td><td></td><td>Matlab software</td></tr><tr><td>sEEG electrodes AD TECH or PMT</td><td>AD TECH</td><td>2102-##-101</td><td>Platinum tip, diameter (0.89 mm, 1 mm, 1.1 mm), uninsulated length 2.3 mm; The ## in the catalog number indicates the number of contacts on the electrode (08, 10, 12, or 16)</td></tr><tr><td>Cabrio connectors</td><td>PMT</td><td>2125-##-01</td><td>The ## in the catalog number indicates the number of contacts on the electrode (08, 10, 12, or 16)</td></tr><tr><td>Tucker Davis Technologies Amplifier</td><td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td><td>PZ5</td><td>preamplifier for neural data</td></tr><tr><td>Tucker Davis Technologies processor</td><td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td><td>RZ2</td><td>Neural signal processor for neural data</td></tr><tr><td>TuckerDavis Technologies data streamer</td><td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td><td>RS4</td><td>Data streamer and storage</td></tr><tr><td>Fiber optics cables to connect TDT systems</td><td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td><td>F05</td><td>Fiber optic cables for connecting Tucker Davis Technologies&#039; prodcuts.</td></tr><tr><td>ribbon cable and snap serial connector for digital markers</td><td></td><td></td><td>Can be ordered from ost electronics stores.</td></tr><tr><td>personal computer fro running TDT RPvdsEx and OpenEx software</td><td>Superlogics</td><td>SL-2U-PD-Q87SLQ-BA</td><td>computer for behavioral control</td></tr><tr><td>middle atlantics server cabinet with casters</td><td>Middle Atlantic Products</td><td>PTRK-21</td><td>Server case to house all of the research items</td></tr><tr><td>Tucker Davis Technologies splitter box to split clinical and research recrodings</td><td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td><td></td><td>This splitter box is a semi-custom device. Researchers should consult the attending neurologists about splitting the research and clinical recordings in a way that doesn&#039;t interfere with clinical care.</td></tr><tr><td>Researcher monitor with requisite cables</td><td>Dell</td><td>U2212HMc</td><td>Most Monitors are adequate here.</td></tr><tr><td>button box power source - 5 volts, 2 amperes</td><td></td><td></td><td>Can be purchased at any electronics store.</td></tr><tr><td>TDT optical interface PCI card</td><td>Tucker Davs Technologies</td><td>P05</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

investigating the function of deep cortical and subcortical structures using stereotactic electroencephalography: lessons from the anterior cingulate cortex

Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Stereotactic Electroencephalography (SEEG) is a technique used to localize seizure foci in patients with medically intractable epilepsy. This procedure involves the chronic placement of multiple depth electrodes into regions of the brain typically inaccessible via subdural grid electrode placement. SEEG thus provides a unique opportunity to investigate brain function. In this paper we demonstrate how SEEG can be used to investigate the role of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in cognitive control. We include a description of the SEEG procedure, demonstrating the surgical placement of the electrodes. We describe the components and process required to record local field potential (LFP) data from consenting subjects while they are engaged in a behavioral task. In the example provided, subjects play a cognitive interference task, and we demonstrate how signals are recorded and analyzed from electrodes in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, an area intimately involved in decision-making. We conclude with further suggestions of ways in which this method can be used for investigating human cognitive processes.

Once a patient is selected for SEEG electrode placement, he/she undergoes a volumetric T2 and T1 contrast enhanced MRI. SEEG electrode trajectories are then planned using stereotactic navigation of the volumetric MRI sequences (Figure 1). This technique allows for the collection of local field potentials from structures deep within the cortex such as dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (light orange trajectory, Figure 1) that would not be possible with typical surface electrode placement. P...

Stereotactic Electroencephalography (SEEG) is an operative technique used in epilepsy surgery to help localize seizure foci. It also affords a unique opportunity to investigate brain function. Here we describe how SEEG can be used to investigate cognitive processes in human subjects.

Stereotactic Electroencephalography (SEEG) is a technique used to localize seizure foci in patients with medically intractable epilepsy. This procedure ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to record electrophysiological signals from deep within the brain. This is accomplished by first placing electrodes in the target regions of interest. The data acquisition rig is then set up by the patient's bedside, and the patient is instructed how to perform a simple cognitive task in the final step.The electrophysiological signals are recorded through the electrodes while the patient completes the task. Ultimately, multi tapered spectral analysis is used to demonstrate variances in the local field, potential activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, depending on the difficulty of the cognitive task. The advantage of stereo ence holography over other recording techniques such as subdural grid implantation is that with stereo EEG, we have access to deep structures within the brain.This is an advantage clinically when we think that seizures may be arising from these deep structures and also from a research perspective, cause it gives us access to areas of the brain that we don't have access to. Otherwise, Patient selection is critically important because this technique is particularly suited to the localization of seizures coming from

investigating-function-deep-cortical-subcortical-structures-using

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Dense array electroencephalography is being used increasingly to study social cognitive functions in infants and adults. Here we present an established methodology that represents a significant improvement on conventional methodologies for studying EEG in infants and adults.

Investigating Social Cognition in Infants and Adults Using Dense Array Electroencephalography (dEEG)

We present a method for collecting electrocorticographic signals for research purposes from humans who are undergoing invasive epilepsy monitoring.  We show how to use the BCI2000 software platform for data collection, signal processing and stimulus presentation.  Specifically, we demonstrate SIGFRIED, a BCI2000-based tool for real-time functional brain mapping.

Recording Human Electrocorticographic (ECoG) Signals for Neuroscientific Research and Real-time Functional Cortical Mapping

In this video, the effects of transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) on brain slices containing the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and thalamus regions are investigated, using a multi-electrode array (MEA) to measure electric signals. By delivering electric pulses and infusing seizure-inducing drugs, the study investigates the ACC response to seizures.

Monitoring the Brain Cortex with a Multi-Electrode Array in Response to Seizure-Inducing Agents

This video demonstrates the process of recording cortical and subcortical neuronal activity using electroencephalography (EEG) and deep brain stimulation (DBS) electrodes during an attention-based visual stimulation test.

Recording Cortical and Subcortical Neuronal Activity Using Electrode Systems

Patients implanted with intracranial electrodes provide a unique opportunity to record neurological data from multiple areas of the brain while the patient performs behavioral tasks.  Here, we present a method of recording from implanted patients that can be reproducible at other institutions with access to this patient population.

Performing Behavioral Tasks in Subjects with Intracranial Electrodes

The present protocol aims at assessing cognitive-emotional functions in the basal ganglia by simultaneous neurophysiological recording of local field potentials and non-invasive brain cortical activity (EEG). The procedure is exemplified by the use of paradigms involving speech stimuli with emotional connotation or the Flanker task involving cognitive control.

Combined Invasive Subcortical and Non-invasive Surface Neurophysiological Recordings for the Assessment of Cognitive and Emotional Functions in Humans

Studies have shown that cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation can produce suppressive effects on drug-resistant seizures. In this study, an in vitro experimental setup was devised in which the direct-current stimulation and multielectrode array recording of seizure-like activity were evaluated in mice brain slice preparation. The direct-current stimulation parameters were evaluated.

Direct-current Stimulation and Multi-electrode Array Recording of Seizure-like Activity in Mice Brain Slice Preparation

The SEEG methodology is simplified and made faster with a stereotactic robot. Careful attention must be paid to the registration of the preoperative volumetric MRI to the patient prior to use of the robot in the OR. The robot streamlines the procedure, leading to decreased operative times and accurate implantations.

Operative Technique and Nuances for the Stereoelectroencephalographic (SEEG) Methodology Utilizing a Robotic Stereotactic Guidance System

A novel protocol for personalized transcranial magnetic stimulation in combination with electroencephalography (TMS–EEG) mapping of cortical networks, informed by multiple magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data modalities.

Neuroimaging-Guided TMS&#8211;EEG for Real-Time Cortical Network Mapping

Here, we present two protocols for high-density micro-electrocorticography (µEcoG) recording in rats and mice, including surgical, implantation, and recording methods. µECoG recordings are performed in combination with either laminar polytrode recording in the rat auditory cortex or with optogenetic manipulation of neural activity in the mouse somatosensory cortex.

Multiscale Investigations of Cortical Processing by Integrating Laminar Polytrodes and Optogenetics with Micro Electrocorticography in Rodents

Here, we describe a protocol for ex vivo high-density microelectrode array recordings from acute cerebellar brain slices of a dystonic hamster model that received in vivo. continuous pallidal deep brain stimulation for 11 days.

Investigating The Network-Wide Mechanisms of Pallidal Deep Brain Stimulation Using High-Density Microelectrode Arrays

学ぶ 定位脳波（SEEG）を用いて、前帯状皮質などの深部皮質構造からの電気生理学的信号を記録する方法です。認知課題中の局所電位活動を解析し、てんかんの病巣特定や認知神経科学研究への応用を示します。

Investigating the Function of Deep Cortical and Subcortical Structures Using Stereotactic Electroencephalography: Lessons from the Anterior Cingulate Cortex

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